Action Research Literature Review

Introduction

World language education has undergone significant change during the last century.  Instead of learning about the structure of the target language, students learn and practice the language toward the end goal of effective communication (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2011).  Haley, et al. (2013) emphasized the importance of language skills and cultural awareness in today’s global society.  To this end, world language teachers should provide an environment that helps students to develop the speaking and writing skills that they need to participate in authentic open-ended communication situations.  Traditional teaching and learning methods are inadequate to meet the communicative goals of today’s world language students (Isiguzel, 2014). If language teachers are going to help students meet the goal of proficient communication for the twenty-first century, it will be necessary to make use of new technologies and teaching and learning strategies such as blended learning.  As this review of the literature will show, research on blended learning reveals that this environment has a positive effect on student outcomes in virtually all content areas. World language in no exception.

Blended Learning

The term “blended learning” became part of the lexicon around the year 2000 (Bojović, 2017).  Blended learning takes many forms, but at its core it is a combination of a traditional teaching and learning approach and technology-enhanced learning.  Although much research has focused on the blended learning environment in secondary and university level programs, blended learning can be adapted for all grade levels.  Graham (2006) explains that blended learning “combines face-to-face instruction with computer mediated instruction.” Bataineh and Mayyas (2017) take Graham’s ideas a step further when they include the Internet in their definition of blended learning.  Lalima (2017) explains, “Blended learning incorporates direct instruction, indirect instruction, collaborative teaching [and] individualized computer assisted learning” (p. 131). Finally, as Watson (2008) explains, “…blended learning combines online delivery of education content with the best features of classroom interaction and live instruction to personalize learning, allow thoughtful reflection, and differentiate instruction from student to student across a diverse group of learners.”  Blended learning’s combination of technology and face-to-face interaction allows for individualization, providing teachers the opportunity to focus on each student’s specific needs.

Benefits of blended learning

There have been numerous studies that show the positive effects of blended learning on students across content areas.  A study by Serdyukov (2017) revealed that students learn most effectively when they have both face-to-face instructional experiences and technology-enhanced learning opportunities.  Seventy percent of teachers in Whiteside et al.’s (2016) study affirmed this research. Research on blended learning by Utami (2018) showed that high school students who engaged in blended learning did better on posttests than students whose learning experiences were limited to traditional teaching and learning strategies.  

In their research, Bataineh and Mayyas (2017) focused specifically on the effects of blended learning in world language instruction.  They found that students in blended learning courses performed better in both reading comprehension skills and grammar (Bataineh & Mayyas, 2017).  Isiguzel (2014) also showed that students who experienced a blended learning environment were more successful in content area learning than their peers, who experienced only traditional instruction.  Bojović (2017) explained that blended learning leads to improvement in world language students’ speaking and writing skills.

An additional benefit of establishing a blended learning environment is the flexibility that this classroom structure provides to students and teachers.  Providing online learning opportunities allows students to have greater control over when and where they learn and how often they access learning materials (EdTech Team, 2017).  Bataineh & Mayyas (2017) found that students made repeated use of online resources throughout the duration of the course in which they were enrolled. In a survey of participants in their research study, Caruso, et al. (2017) found that ninety-three percent of survey respondents shared that they listened to the audio and audiovisual materials provided more than once.  In fact, many students prefer to complete listening comprehension activities online as opposed to doing them in the classroom (Lee & Lee, 2012). These are important findings because research has shown that a connection exists between students’ listening comprehension abilities and their overall language skills (Caruso, et al., 2017).  

Plough (2017) explained that establishing a blended learning environment encourages students to communicate in open-ended discussions.  Because blended learning is a student-centered approach, (Isiguzel, 2014), there is an emphasis on performance in the target language, and students play a role in the pace of their learning (Watson, 2008).  Isiguzel (2014), affirmed Watson by concluding that the blended learning environment lends itself to discussion and cooperation. In the world language setting, student conversations and debates can be performed in the target language.

When students have access to online materials, teachers and students can use classroom time more effectively and efficiently.  Consequently, students can achieve the learning objectives of a course more quickly than they could in a traditional learning environment (Bojović, 2017).  This can be particularly beneficial in the United States, where many students do not begin to learn a second language until middle school.  

Learners can use classroom time to work on online activities at their own pace, to work with classmates, and to conference with their teacher to address their individual learning needs (Whiteside, et al., 2016).  Mirriahi, et al. (2015), reported that establishing a blended learning environment where students access materials online can provide greater opportunities for student engagement and collaboration. This is especially significant in the world language classroom.  When students can access grammar review materials and practice activities online, teachers and students can spend more time in class communicating in the target language, thus increasing language proficiency. Vandergrift & Goh (2012) explained that listening comprehension and speaking proficiency are often neglected areas of language study.  Blended learning can address this by allowing more class time for discussion (Isiguzel, 2014) as well as peer and teacher editing of written work.

Florian and Zimmerman (2015) cited the Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development when they discussed the four skills that enhance students’ overall abilities.  They are: communication, collaboration, creativity, and the ability to connect learning opportunities (Florian & Zimmerman, 2015). These skills align well with the “5 C’s” of language learning developed by the American Council for the Teaching of Foreign Languages, which are:  communication (interpersonal, interpretive, and presentational), cultural awareness and respect, connections with other disciplines, comparisons with one’s own language and culture, and the use of language beyond the classroom in the larger community (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2011).  By helping students to develop their speaking and writing skills within the language learning environment, world language teachers are helping students to develop the lifelong skills that they will need to be successful in post-secondary education, the work place, and global society.

Bojović (2017) outlined characterics of an effective world language learning experience.  They include interaction in the target language, use of authentic language activities, language production, social interaction, timely feedback, and student control of some aspects of the pace of their learning (Bojović, 2017).  She went on to explain that incorporating all of these elements of language learning can be difficult in a traditional learning environment (Bojović, 2017). The characteristics outlined by Bojović (2017), may be more attainable with the flexible learning experience that blended learning provides.

Barriers to implementation  

Multiple barriers exist in the implementation of an effective blended learning environment, and they involve every sector of education from students to federal funding.  Student concerns include time limitations, insecurity about the use of learning management systems (LMS) and other technology for learning, and little motivation for engaging in a new learning experience (EdTech Team, 2017).  Additionally, online learning requires self-discipline on the part of the learner (Bojović, 2017). The digital divide can also pose a challenge to effective implementation of blended learning. Not all students have access to the same technology tools, and this must be addressed for a blended learning program to be successful for all students (Bojović, 2017).

For teachers, the greatest barriers are time limitations and lack of support (Lonn & Teasley, 2009).  According to The Blended Learning Design Framework, time is the significant impediment to teacher adoption of technology for use within the classroom (EdTech Team, 2017).  Mozelius & Rydell (2017), also spoke to time limitations as a barrier to successful blended learning implementation. Darling-Hammond, et al. (2009), reported that teachers in the United States spend a greater portion of their teaching day in the classroom working with students than teachers in many other developed nations.  Whereas teachers in other countries average about sixty percent of their day working with students, teachers in the United States dedicate about eighty percent of their work day to time spent with students (Darling-Hammond, et al., 2009). American teachers spend the vast majority of their day engaging with students in the classroom, at duty periods, and on daily planning and grading responsibilities.  Consequently, it is a challenge for world language teachers to find time to implement new teaching strategies and to develop the authentic learning activities that will help students to develop their open-ended speaking and writing skills.

Global Lessons Learned

Whether it is within the United States or in other countries, there are educators all over the world who are using technology to help their students to develop their speaking and writing skills.  Most research in favor of implementing blended learning emphasizes the importance of long-term, effective professional development for the teachers who will be adopting this learning environment. Darling-Hammond, et al. (2009), emphasized the positive correlation between ongoing professional learning experiences and student achievement.  Gulamhussein (2013), explained that, to be truly meaningful, professional development must be ongoing, must be supportive, must actively engage the participants, must include modeling, and must be content specific.  

In addition to providing sustained professional learning experiences, studies have shown that full faculty presentations are not as effective as the use of professional learning communities (PLC) that allow teachers to share their experiences (La Ferrière & Cooke, 2016).  Haley, et al. (2013) reported that teaching and learning strategies that encourage communication and collaboration among students are common in world language courses in the United States. PLCs allow the collaboration that takes place within the classroom to extend beyond.  Teachers have the opportunity to share what worked and what did not work in small groups whose members can provide advice and support (Gulamhussein, 2013). Additionally, they can collaborate to create authentic speaking and writing assessments across world language curricula.

Finally, when first implementing a blended learning initiative, planning is essential, both with regards to the technology involved and the authentic activities that will facilitate the development of students’ speaking and writing skills.  Whiteside et al. (2016) emphasize that school leaders should look to volunteers to be the first implementers of new learning designs, and these teachers should be able to design their curriculum. Additionally, the scheduling of technology time and face-to-face classroom time must be intentional for the blended learning environment to be successful (Whiteside, et al., 2016).

The challenge of teacher time is not likely to be solved in the near future, and many teachers are either unwilling or unable to make drastic changes in their teaching and learning strategies in a short span of time.  Changing strategies to incorporate authentic speaking and writing performance activities and assessments using blended learning means mastering new technology and creating new resources, efforts that require time. Research recommends that schools introduce blended learning and other technology initiatives in stages so that teachers have time to learn how to use new tools and strategies in order to implement them effectively to improve student learning (EdTech Team, 2017).  

Teachers can address students’ wariness about the blended learning environment by presenting clear expectations about tasks to be completed and the amount of time students should need to spend on each activity (EdTech Team, 2017).  As with all learning experiences, it is also important that students see the value of the work that they are doing (Plough, 2017). In the world language classroom, teachers can accomplish this by creating authentic speaking and writing tasks and explaining their real world applications to students.

Gaps in the Research and Questions for Future Study

Blended learning is a well-researched topic.  There are many journal articles that focus on the general benefits of blended learning as well as the process of effectively implementing a blended learning environment.  Additionally, there is global research available that addresses the role of technology and blended learning in the world language classroom. What is lacking, however, is research on the role of blended learning in high school world language classes within the United States, as well as the role that blended learning can play in language skill development.

More research is also needed that discusses an in-class blended learning environment.  There are many high schools in the United States that are still working on the traditional face-to-face instructional model with fifty minutes classes that meet every day.  How can blended learning be incorporated within this schedule?

As more teachers, schools, and school districts incorporate blended learning environments into their students’ learning experiences it will be important to complete longitudinal studies on the effects of blended learning.  For example, does experiencing a blended learning environment throughout one’s high school language courses have an effect on Advanced Placement examination scores?  

In their “21st Century Skills Map,” the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2011) outline the process for developing “Advanced” level proficiency in a target by the end of a student’s secondary education and “Superior” level of proficiency by the end of university studies.  Their plan calls for beginning language study in early elementary school (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2011), which does not seem to be a priority for many public K-12 school districts.  More research needs to be done on how to develop proficiency in speaking and writing with a significantly abbreviated timeline.

Summary

As one instructor in Mirriahi et al.’s (2015) study observed, students are using technology to communicate with each other and with the world.  If educators want to be able to reach these students most effectively, they need to consider meeting these students where they are (Mirriahi, et al., 2015).  It seems that any tool that will inspire students to develop more proficient spoken and written communication skills will be beneficial. Research has shown that using technology in education improves student outcomes.  In world language learning in particular, technology has been improving instructional practice for decades (Salaberry, 2001). Maybe it is time that teachers learn from their students and adapt their learning environments so that students are better able to develop open-ended speaking and writing skills instead of continuing down the industrial path of education that teaches students about language without helping them learn to communicate with it.  Blended learning offers the best of both worlds. The technology is available to allow students to learn anywhere and at any time, and the face-to-face element provides the human experience.

References

Bataineh, R. F., & Mayyas, M. B. (2017). The utility of blended learning in EFL reading and grammar: A case for Moodle. Teaching English with Technology, 17(3), 35-49.

Bojović, M. D. (2017). Blended learning as a foreign language learning environment. TEME: Casopis za Društvene Nauke, 41(4), 1017-1036. https://doi.org/10.22190/TEME1704017B

Caruso, M., Colombi, A. G., & Tebbit, S. (2017). Teaching how to listen. Blended learning for the development and assessment of listening skills in a second language. Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice, 14(1).

Darling-Hammond, L., Wei, R. C., Andree, A., Richardson, N., & Orphanos, S. (2009). 

Professional learning in the learning profession: A status report on teacher development in the United States and abroad [Pamphlet]. Retrieved from https://learningforward.org/docs/default-source/pdf/nsdcstudy2009.pdf

EdCan Network Le Réseau ÉdCan. (2016, May 19). Innovation that sticks case study – OCSB: Risk taking [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UAMcjUzdVnE

EdTech Team. (2017, July 4). The blended learning design framework. Retrieved from Blended Learning website: https://sleguidance.atlassian.net/wiki/spaces/BL/pages/36962416/The+blended+learning+design+framework

Florian, T. P., & Zimmerman, J. P. (2015). Understanding by Design, Moodle, and blended learning: A secondary school case study. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 11(1), 120-128.

Graham, C. R. (2006). Blended learning systems: Definition, current trends, and future directions. In C. J. Bonk & C. R. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 3-21). Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258834966_Blended_learning_systems_Definition_current_trends_and_future_directions

Gulamhussein, A. (2013, September). Teaching the teachers: Effective professional development an era of high stakes accountability. Retrieved from The Center for Public Education website: https://www.academia.edu/28440314/Teaching_Effective_Professional_Development_in_an_Era_of_High_Stakes_Accountability_READ_THE_REPORT_Center_for_Public_Education

Haley, M. H., Steeley, S. L., & Salahshoor, M. (2013). Connecting twenty-first century skills and world language practices: A case study with teachers of critical need languages. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 3(6), 865-876. https://doi.org/10.4304/tpls.3.6.865-876

Isiguzel, B. (2014). The blended learning environment on the foreign language learning process: A balance for motivation and achievement. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 15(3), 108-121.

Lalima, K. L. D. (2017). Blended learning: An innovative approach. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 5(1), 129-136. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2017.050116

Lee, J., & Lee, C. H. (2012). Students’ perspectives and the effectiveness of blended learning in L2 listening at university level. Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning, 15(1), 59-89. Retrieved from http://kmjournal.bada.cc/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/15-1-3Lee.pdf

Lonn, S., & Teasley, S. D. (2009). Saving time or innovating practice: Investigating perceptions and uses of Learning Management Systems.  Computers and Education, 53(3), 686-694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.04.008 

Mirriahi, N., Vaid, B. S., & Burns, D. P. (2015). Meeting the challenge of providing flexible learning opportunities: Considerations for technology adoption amongst academic staff.  Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology, 41(1).

Mozelius, P., & Rydell, C. (2017). Problems affecting successful implementation of blended learning in higher education – The teacher perspective. International Journal of Information and Communication Technologies in Education, 6(1), 4-13. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijicte

Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (2011, March). 21st century skills map. Retrieved December 10, 2019, from https://www.actfl.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/21stCenturySkillsMap/p21_worldlanguagesmap.pdf

Plough, B. (2017). Recognizing and understanding effective blended learning in secondary classrooms. Leadership, 46(4), 28-31.

Salaberry, R. M. (2001). The use of technology for second language learning and teaching: A retrospective. The Modern Language Journal, 85(1), 39-56.

Serdyukov, P. (2017). Innovation in education: What works, what doesn’t, and what to do about it? Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning, 10(1), 4-33. Retrieved from https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/JRIT-10-2016-0007/full/html

Utami, I. S. (2018). The effect of blended learning model on senior high school students’ achievement. SHS Web of Conferences, 42. https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/20184200027

Vandergrift, L., & Goh, C. C. M. (2012). Teaching and learning second language listening: Metacognition in action. New York: Routledge.

Watson, J. (2008). Blending learning: The convergence of online and face-to-face education [Pamphlet]. Vienna, VA: North American Council for Online Learning.

Whiteside, A. L., Dikkers, A. G., & Lewis, S. (2016). “More confident going into college”: Lessons learned from multiple stakeholders in a new blended learning initiative. Online Learning, 20(4), 136-156.