Literature Review

Blended Learning Literature Review

Introduction

Technology appears to be here to stay.  As society changes and adapts to new technology, so do the students found in world language classrooms around the world.  Teaching according to the Industrial Age factory model of education is not adequate to reach the students who are learning in a twenty-first century world (Isiguzel, 2014).  Technology used in personal lives is entering learning environments whether teachers like it or not. They can either continue to fight it or embrace new methods of teaching and learning that include technology by adopting a blended learning environment.  By incorporating blended learning into the world language learning experience, educators can provide students with more opportunities for authentic communication in and beyond the classroom, can increase student achievement, and can help students to develop skills that they will use in college and beyond.

What is blended learning?

Blended learning takes many forms, but at its core it is a combination of a traditional teaching and learning approach and technology-enhanced learning.  Although much research has focused on the blended learning environment in secondary and university level programs, blended learning can be adapted for all grade levels.  Graham (2006) explains that blended learning “combines face-to-face instruction with computer mediated instruction.” Bataineh and Mayyas (2017) take this definition further when they include the Internet in their definition of blended learning (p. 36).  Lalima (2017) explains, “Blended learning incorporates direct instruction, indirect instruction, collaborative teaching [and] individualized computer assisted learning” (p. 131). Blended learning’s combination of technology and face-to-face interaction allows for personalization, providing teachers the opportunity to focus on each student’s individual needs.

Benefits of blended learning.  There have been numerous studies reinforcing the positive effects of blended learning on students.  A study by Serdyukov (2017) revealed that students learn most effectively when they have both face-to-face instructional experiences and technology-enhanced learning opportunities.  Seventy percent of teachers in Whiteside et al.’s (2016) study affirm this research,. Research on blended learning by Utami (2018) showed that high school students who engaged in blended learning did better on posttests than students whose learning experiences were limited to traditional teaching and learning strategies.  In their research, Bataineh and Mayyas (2017) focused specifically on the effects of blended learning in world language instruction. They found that students in blended learning courses performed better in both reading comprehension skills and grammar (Bataineh & Mayyas, 2017). Isiguzel (2014) also shows that blended learning students were more successful in content area learning than their peers who experienced only traditional instruction.

The benefits of blended learning extend beyond content mastery.  Research shows that participating in blended learning experiences helps students to obtain skills that are useful in areas of their lives beyond the classroom setting (Plough, 2017).  Students participating in a blended learning environment develop better time management skills, take more personal accountability for their work, and are generally more independent learners (Toikkanen, 2016).  They develop self-discipline and are more responsible learners (Lalima, 2017, p. 133). Blended learning also helps high school students identify the learning strategies that work best for them, which will be an asset as students continue their education at the university level (Whiteside, et al., 2016).  Additionally, there is typically a distance learning element to blended learning that is beneficial. As Rapposelli (2014) explains, distance learning provides students exposure to technology that will allow them to develop the skills they will need in college and for the business world. The compilers of The Blended Learning Design Framework also found that blended learning experiences encourage students to be more responsible for their own learning (EdTech Team, 2017).  In short, providing students with blended learning opportunities allows students to become more autonomous learners (Isiguzel, 2014).  As one teacher explained, students are able to ascertain for themselves when they do not know something (Whiteside, et al., 2016). This can be an important first step in students taking responsibility for their own learning.

An additional benefit of establishing a blended learning environment is the flexibility that this classroom structure provides to students and teachers.  Providing online learning opportunities allows students to have greater control over when and where they learn and how often the access learning materials (EdTech Team, 2017).  Bataineh & Mayyas (2017) found that students made repeated use of online resources throughout the duration of the course. In a survey of participants in their research study, Caruso, et al. (2017) found that ninety-three percent of survey respondents shared that they listened to the audio and audiovisual materials provided more than once.  In fact, many students prefer to complete listening comprehension activities online as opposed to doing them in the classroom (Lee & Lee, 2012). These are important findings because research has shown that a connection exists between students’ listening comprehension abilities and their overall language skills (Caruso, et al., 2017).

When students have access to online materials, teachers and students can use classroom time more effectively and efficiently.  Learners can use classroom time to work on online activities at their own pace, to work with classmates, and to conference with teachers to address their individual learning needs (Whiteside, et al., 2016).  Mirriahi, et al. (2015), report that establishing a blended learning environment where students access materials online can provide greater opportunities for student engagement and collaboration. This is especially significant in the world language classroom.  When students can access grammar review materials and practice activities online, teachers and students can spend more time in class communicating in the target language, thus increasing language proficiency. Vandergrift & Goh (2012) explain that listening comprehension and speaking proficiency are often neglected areas of language study.  Blended learning can address this by allowing more class time for discussion (Isiguzel, 2014). 

Blended learning environments can foster motivation and self-confidence within students.  The blended learning experiences build motivation and encourage learning relationships among students (Whiteside, et al., 2016).  This is particularly significant for learners who may be reticent about participating in the traditional classroom environment (Plough, 2017).  Because communicating in person may be intimidating for some students, participating in online discussions can be a useful tool to allow these students to engage with others and to improve learning.  Additionally, many times, online blended learning activities on learning management systems (LMS) allow for instant feedback (Bataineh & Mayyas, 2017), thus increasing student motivation.

A final benefit of blended learning is its efficiency (Utami, 2018).  Bataineh & Mayyas (2017) report that use of LMS reduces the amount of time students need to learn.  Combining schools’ LMS systems with the blended learning environment can allow teachers and learners to proceed more expeditiously through review material and allow time for more depth of study and skill development.

Barriers to implementation.  Multiple barriers exist in the implementation of an effective blended learning environment, and they involve every sector of education from students to federal funding.  Student concerns include time limitations, insecurity about the use of LMS and other technology for learning, and little motivation for engaging in a new learning experience (EdTech Team, 2017).

For teachers, the greatest barriers are time limitations and lack of support (Lonn & Teasley, 2009).  According to The Blended Learning Design Framework, time is the significant impediment to teacher adoption of technology for use within the classroom (EdTech Team, 2017).  Mozelius & Rydell (2017), also speak to time limitations as a barrier to successful blended learning implementation. Darling-Hammond, et al. (2009), report that teachers in the United States spend a greater portion of their teaching day in the classroom working with students than teachers in many other developed nations.  Whereas teachers in other countries average about sixty percent of their day working with students, teachers in the United States dedicate about eighty percent of their work day to time spent with students (Darling-Hammond, et al., 2009, p. 15). Given the amount of time American teachers spend engaging with students in the classroom, at duty periods, and on daily planning and grading responsibilities, there is little time for doing the work of implementing new teaching and learning strategies.

In addition to time limitations, many teachers report that they do not have the background they need to incorporate technology effectively into their students’ learning experiences (EdTech Team, 2017).  They lack the pedagogical knowledge required to establish and maintain an effective blended learning environment (Mozelius & Rydell, 2017). Compounding this lack of knowledge is the lack of technology support (Bataineh & Mayyas, 2017).  There is inadequate funding in the United States for teachers and professors to participate in professional learning experiences that would allow them to adopt a blended learning environment (Darling-Hammond, et al., 2009).

Finally, there are teachers who simply believe that traditional teacher and learning environments are preferable to methods that they believe to be unproven (Bataineh & Mayyas, 2017).

Global Lessons Learned in Technology Implementation

Whether it is within the United States or in other countries, there are educators all over the world who are innovating using technology.  Many of these teachers have been successful in using blended learning to enhance their students’ learning experiences. Others have tried and failed.  Before deciding on when and how to implement a blended learning environment into classrooms and schools, it is important to learn from those who have travelled the path before.

What worked?

Most research in favor of implementing blended learning emphasizes the importance of sustained, effective professional development for the teachers who will be adopting this learning environment.  Darling-Hammond, et al. (2009), emphasize the positive correlation between ongoing professional learning experiences and student achievement. Gulamhussein (2013), explains that, to be truly meaningful, professional development must be ongoing, must be supportive, must actively engage the participants, must include modeling, and must be content specific.  She goes on to explain that professional development programs must last longer than fourteen hours if they are to have any meaningful, lasting effect on student performance (Gulamhussein, 2013).  

In addition to providing sustained professional learning experiences, studies have shown that full faculty presentations are not as effective as the use of professional learning communities (PLC) that allow teachers to share their experiences (La Ferrière & Cooke, 2016).  Gulamhussein (2013) explains that teachers need to practice a new skill an average of twenty times in order to be effective with it. PLCs provide teachers the opportunity to share what worked and what did not work in small groups whose members can provide advice and support (Gulamhussein, 2013).

Another effective manner of supporting teachers as they incorporate technology is allowing the opportunity for teaching in pairs because teachers who are working together in this way are more likely to accept the risks that come with trying a new practice (“Innovation that sticks”, 2016).  This can require planning and commitment on the part of administrators and teachers.

Finally, when first implementing a blended learning initiative, planning is essential.  Whiteside et al. (2016) emphasize that school leaders should look to volunteers to be the first implementers of new learning designs, and these teachers should be able to design their curriculum.  Additionally, the scheduling of technology time and face-to-face classroom time must be intentional for the blended learning environment to be successful (Whiteside, et al., 2016).

What could have been done better?

Research tends to focus more on the successes of technology initiatives than on the failures.  Perhaps planning could have been more thorough or more teacher training could have been provided, but the majority of studies show the benefits of the use of technology.  

The experiences at the Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD), however, show the potential risks run by schools and school districts that do not plan adequately (Chambers, 2014).  The LAUSD invested $1.3 billion into an iPad initiative without establishing a vision of how this technology would be used to improve students’ learning experiences (Chambers, 2014). Additionally, some devices were used inappropriately because the LAUSD decided against following Apple’s guidelines (Chambers, 2014).  In the end, leaders decided to cancel the iPad program (Chambers, 2014). Lapowsky (2015) explains that LAUSD’s iPad rollout as well as technology initiatives across the country can only be effective if leaders decide which problems they are trying to solve with technology before deciding which technology to buy.

For some schools and school districts it is not feasible to make the type of financial investment that LAUSD chose to make even if they have the necessary vision and plan.  Isaacs (2012) shows that schools that do not have the necessary infrastructure or resources to establish computer labs and school-wide WiFi do not have to forego the benefits of technology.  In a world where mobile phone technology is widespread, even in many remote areas, making using the technology available is sometimes a better answer to the challenge of how to make technology a part of the learning environment (Isaacs, 2012).  

Applying Lessons Learned

Perhaps the most important lesson learned from the Los Angeles Unified School District is that technology cannot repair an educational system that is dysfunctional.  Technology can make change easier, but it cannot make change happen (ICT Innovative Schools). Development of an ongoing professional learning and support plan is essential for success (Gulmhussein, 2013).  Additionally there needs to be community support (Serdyukov, 2017) and parent involvement (Lalima, 2017) to increase the likelihood of success. Beginning a blended learning initiative without the proper planning, professional and community support, and vision can result in a failed or short-lived initiative.  Each failed initiative makes in harder to obtain staff buy-in for the next one.

The challenge of teacher time is not likely to be solved in the near future, and many teachers are either unwilling or unable to make drastic changes in their teaching and learning strategies in a short span of time.  Changing strategies means learning new technology and creating new resources, efforts that require time. Research recommends that schools introduce blended learning and other technology initiatives in stages so that teachers have time to learn how to use new tools and strategies and implement them effectively to improve student learning (EdTech Team, 2017).  

Teachers can address students’ wariness about the blended learning environment by presenting clear expectations about tasks to be completed and the amount of time students should need to spend on each activity (EdTech Team, 2017).  As with all learning experiences, it is also important that students see the value of the work that they are doing (Pough, 2017).

Gaps in the Research and Questions for Future Study

Blended learning is a well-researched topic.  There are many journal articles that focus on the general benefits of blended learning as well as the process of effectively implementing a blended learning environment.  Additionally, there is global research available that addresses the role of technology and blended learning in the world language classroom. What is missing, however, is research on the role of blended learning in high school world language classes within the United States.  

More research is also needed that discusses an in-class blended learning environment.  There are many high schools in the United States that are still working on the traditional face-to-face instructional model with forty-five minutes classes that meet every day.  How can blended learning be incorporated within this learning structure?

As more teachers, schools, and school districts incorporate blended learning environments into their students’ learning experience it will be important to complete longitudinal studies on the effects of blended learning.  Can a blended learning environment adequately address the Common Core if blended learning is used throughout a student’s formal education? Can blended learning prepare students for state-mandated standardized tests? Should standardized tests be updated to reflect the more individualized learning experiences that blended learning supports and that many students prefer?

Summary

As one instructor in Mirriahi et al.’s (2015) study observed, students are using technology to communicate with each other and with the world.  If educators want to be able to reach these students most effectively, they need to consider meeting these students where they are (Mirriahi, et al., 2015).  Research has shown that using technology in education improves student outcomes. In world language learning in particular, technology has been improving instructional practice for decades (Salaberry, 2001).  Maybe it is time that teachers learn from their students and adapt their learning environments to address students’ needs instead of continuing down the industrial path of education. Blended learning offers the best of both worlds.  The technology is available to allow students to learn anywhere and at any time, and the face-to-face element provides the human experience.

References

Bataineh, R. F., & Mayyas, M. B. (2017). The utility of blended learning in EFL reading and grammar: A case for Moodle. Teaching English with Technology, 17(3), 35-49.

Caruso, M., Colombi, A. G., & Tebbit, S. (2017). Teaching how to listen. Blended learning for the development and assessment of listening skills in a second language. Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice, 14(1).

The CEA ‘Innovation that sticks’ case study report: Ottawa Catholic School Board: A framework for district-wide change (L. La Ferrière & M. Cooke, Comps.) [Pamphlet]. (2016). Retrieved from https://www.edcan.ca/wpcontent/uploads/cea_ocsb_innovation_report.pdf

Chambers, B. (2014, August 28). L.A. cancels iPads-in-the-schools program: A failure of vision, not technology. Macworld. Retrieved from http://www.macworld.com/article/2599988/lausd-ipad-cancellat

Darling-Hammond, L., Wei, R. C., Andree, A., Richardson, N., & Orphanos, S. (2009). Professional learning in the learning profession: A status report on teacher development in the United States and abroad [Pamphlet]. Retrieved from 

Click to access nsdcstudy2009.pdf

EdCan Network Le Réseau ÉdCan. (2016, May 19). Innovation that sticks case study – OCSB: Risk taking [Video file]. Retrieved from  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UAMcjUzdVnE

EdTech Team. (2017, July 4). The blended learning design framework. Retrieved from Blended Learning website: https://sleguidance.atlassian.net/wiki/spaces/BL/pages/36962416/The+blended+learning+design+framework

Graham, C. R. (2006). Blended learning systems: Definition, current trends, and future directions. In C. J. Bonk & C. R. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 3-21). Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258834966_Blended_learning_systems_Definition_current_trends_and_future_directions

Gulamhussein, A. (2013, September). Teaching the teachers: Effective professional development an era of high stakes accountability. Retrieved from The Center for Public Education website: https://www.academia.edu/28440314/Teaching_Effective_Professional_Development_in_an_Era_of_High_Stakes_Accountability_READ_THE_REPORT_Center_for_Public_Education

Isaacs, S. (2012). Turning on mobile learning in Africa and the Middle East [Pamphlet]. Retrieved from https://learn-us-east-1-prod-fleet01-xythos.s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/5c082f78d4ba4/2844352?response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%2A%3DUTF-8%27%27Mobile%2520Learning%2520in%2520Africa%2520and%2520the%2520Middle%2520East.pdf&response-content-type=application%2Fpdf&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20191102T183121Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=21599&X-Amz-Credential=AKIAIBGJ7RCS23L3LEJQ%2F20191102%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=520fc569f6e81afb5334a09a0577785c6b4da89f2ffdabd83a82f80796228b75

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Plough, B. (2017). Recognizing and understanding effective blended learning in secondary classrooms. Leadership, 46(4), 28-31.

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Whiteside, A. L., Dikkers, A. G., & Lewis, S. (2016). “More confident going into college”: Lessons learned from multiple stakeholders in a new blended learning initiative. Online Learning, 20(4), 136-156.